These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. Increased prescriptions led to greater rates of misuse, along with greater incidence of addiction, even among patients who used these drugs as prescribed. These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a child, and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas during a sleepwalking episode. Often, we are not completely aware of our surroundings, even when we are fully awake. Diarrhea. Generally, alcohol is associated with decreases in reaction time and visual acuity, lowered levels of alertness, and reduction in behavioral control. b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. There is quite a bit of controversy within the scientific community as to the extent to which marijuana might have medicinal benefits due to a lack of large-scale, controlled research (Bostwick, 2012). While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). Therefore, the abuse potential of central nervous system depressants is relatively high. Elements that are known to make PTSD more likely are the following: Perceived life threat Personal injury Interpersonal violence, particularly perpetrated by a caregiver Past and present vulnerability, including genetics, childhood trauma, insufficient emotional support, concurrent causes of stress Example: Childhood abuse and rape To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). While "internal state" or impulsivity are terms more generally discussed in psychology or neuroscience, the concept is familiar to anyone. Methamphetamine in its smokable form, often called crystal meth due to its resemblance to rock crystal formations, is highly addictive. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. If you cannot fall asleep, leave your bed and do something else until you feel tired again. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. It may surprise you to know that sleep deprivation is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels of stress hormones, and reduced immune functioning (Banks & Dinges, 2007). The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. Some can cause heightened sensitivity to physical stimuli. EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). Two of them I didnt even know I was involved in until afterwards (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Dreams and their associated meanings vary across different cultures and periods of time. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. While it is probably the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. Many of these processes, like much of psychological behavior, are rooted in our biology. Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous leveleven to the point of overdose and death. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. The crisis actually began in the 1990s, when pharmaceutical companies began mass-marketing pain-relieving opioid drugs like OxyContin with the promise (now known to be false) that they were non-addictive. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. Watch this, Sleep, which we all experience, is a quiet and mysterious pause in our daily lives. However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. For example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment. Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. Research indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation to be made (Brook et al., 2013). Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. Moreover, these impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation increases (Alhola & Polo-Kantola, 2007). Treatment. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. (credit: Laurie Avocado). a. will be healthier than children because they are exposed to fewer infectious diseases.b. Homeostatic regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation. Early versions of this theory proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations of angst proposed by Freud and others, but were rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of (synthesize) the neural activity (activation) that was happening during REM sleep. . Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. The FDAs 2013 recommendation for tighter controls on opiate prescriptions left many patients addicted to prescription drugs like OxyContin unable to obtain legitimate prescriptions. This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves through the various stages of sleep. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). Feeling tired. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. 1. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . Some people also experience altered states of consciousness through meditation, hypnosis, or alcohol and other drugs. d. respond to illnesses much like the older adults do. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. Some forms of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, can help sufferers of insomnia. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis. 1. While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort ofbiological clock? The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming three liters of soda each day. Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Once she was able to limit her use to less than 12 ounces of soda a day, both her mental and physical health gradually improved. Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and heavy meals before bed. It was getting to the point where it was kind of scary (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. 3. Here are some tips to maintain healthy sleep: Aparasomniais one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. During this time, an individuals heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). Loss of appetite. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. While the possession and use of marijuana remain illegal in many states, it is now legal to possess limited quantities of marijuana for recreational use in eleven states: Alaska, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. Wakefulnessis characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. The brain waves associated with REM sleep, outlined in the red box in (a), look very similar to those seen (b) during wakefulness. Few people in the United States remain untouched by the recent opioid epidemic. Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. 0. c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dreams content (LaBerge, 1990). Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman & Herman, 2013). This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. Confusion. A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Several of the nurses interviewed commented that their work schedules affected their relationships with their family. Asleep spindleis a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). Caffeine is another stimulant drug. Complete the following multiple choice quiz covering chapters 1, 6, and 9. Insleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. (credit: modification of work by new 1lluminati/Flickr), Medical marijuana shops are becoming more and more common in the United States. While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. Loss of appetite. Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001; Siegel, 2001). the ability to spend time, good time with them when youre not feeling absolutely exhausted . In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. (credit sleeping: modification of work by Ryan Vaarsi). High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea (OSA), and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). (a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. This is known as the REM rebound, and it suggests that REM sleep is also homeostatically regulated. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. Upset stomach and vomiting. While disruptions in circadian rhythms can have negative consequences, there are things we can do to help us realign our biological clocks with the external environment. Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suffers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002). Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. A womans menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythma recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. My sophomore college housemate got so stressed out during finals sophomore year he drank almost a whole bottle of Nyquil to try to fall asleep. Two sleeping children are depicted in this 1895 oil painting titled. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. (a) A typical CPAP device used in the treatment of sleep apnea is (b) affixed to the head with straps, and a mask that covers the nose and mouth. Research indicates that included among these possible benefits are increased capacities for creative thinking (Cai, Mednick, Harrison, Kanady, & Mednick, 2009; Wagner, Gais, Haider, Verleger, & Born, 2004), language learning (Fenn, Nusbaum, & Margoliash, 2003; Gmez, Bootzin, & Nadel, 2006), and inferential judgments (Ellenbogen, Hu, Payne, Titone, & Walker, 2007). A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. Although she had been taking a prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist, so caffeine inhibits the adenosine receptors, thus decreasing sleepiness and promoting wakefulness. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. Rotating shift workrefers to a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. The decade from 20102019 brought many changes in laws regarding marijuana. Historically, somnambulism has been treated with a variety of pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to antidepressants. It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Many of these drugs, and their relationships, are shown inTable 4.2. Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . Recent research (Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new techniques by which researchers may effectively detect and classify the visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional research in this area. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? (West et al., 2009, p. 114). Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, n.d.). In such instances, the individuals schedule changes so frequently that it becomes difficult for a normal circadian rhythm to be maintained. Toleranceis linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. Generally, people use caffeine to maintain increased levels of alertness and arousal. Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. Historically, heroin has been a major opioid drug of abuse (Figure 4.17). Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. In Falaters case, a jury found him guilty of first degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however, there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been used successfully. As he went to investigate what was going on, he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the murder of his wife (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. These episodes can last 1020 seconds or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. Not surprisingly, insomnia treatment may take one of several different approaches. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. These sleep episodes are often associated withcataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety. Psychometric analysis indicates that the ISS is composed of four principle components, producing four subscales. People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of available research suggests that most people are at least moderately hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). Perhaps our ancestors spent extended periods of time asleep to reduce attention to themselves from potential predators.